Stagnation in yield levels and increasing food demand warrant an urgent need to enhance productivity of rice, the staple food of millions in India. However, the task is highly demanding in view of the deteriorating resources. Of the two options presently available for increasing the yield potential, hybrid rice relies on the hybrid vigour expressed by the heterozygous F1 hybrids over the best inbreds while the other one is about tailoring the present rice plant architecture in a way to harness both light and nutrients in more efficient manner for realizing higher yields through increased biomass production and its better partitioning to the sink. Advances made in the field of rice biotechnology can augment the conventional efforts in realizing the goal of producing more grain from less land and other agricultural inputs.

The much acclaimed miracle rice, IR 8, that triggered the ‘Green Revolution’ has greatly helped to avert a major rice crisis in the late sixties. This has been possible due to the doubling of yields under irrigated conditions, with the semi-dwarf, early-duration plant types resulting in an increased productivity per day. The second breakthrough in enhancement of rice productivity was achieved through hybrid rice breeding and major gains were visible in China. Even after the two major breakthroughs, rice yields have remained stagnant for a long time and another breakthrough is the need of the hour.

A good plant type is the foundation for increasing the biological yield and grain yield, for which optimizing the yield components is a precondition. Of the several approaches explored, the new plant type (NPT) concept developed by Dr. Khush at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines attracted great attention and it had features like 100-130 days duration, low tillering capacity (3-4 tillers plant-1), 200-250 grains panicle-1, a plant height of 90-100 cm with thick, sturdy culms and erect, dark green leaves and increased harvest index. The initial materials developed employing tropical japonicas failed due to the higher percentage of sterility, poor grain quality and duration. Efforts are underway to broaden the genetic background in order to improve the new plant types. Another model proposed by Dr. Yuan of China takes into account the advantages of indica/japonica recombinants having high carbohydrate storage capacity, the main limiting factor in IRRI-bred NPT lines. The proposed plant type having a theoretical yield potential of 15 t ha-1 is tall (120 cm with a lower panicle position at 60-70 cm above the ground) with thick, narrow, V-shaped erect-leaved canopy and drooping, large and uniform panicles (260 panicles m-2; 5.3 g panicle weight).

Hybrid rice has been the most innovative technology for achieving a quantum jump in rice yields after the semi-dwarf plant type-based high-yielding varieties attained a yield plateau. In China, more than 50% of the total rice area is currently under hybrid rice cultivation. The hybrids now in cultivation belong to intra sub-specific group (indica/indica or japonica/japonica), where the realized heterosis is in the order of 10-20 % (0.75-1.50 t ha-1) over the best high-yielding inbred varieties. Further enhancement in the yield potential of hybrid rice can be achieved through development of inter sub-specific (indica/japonica or indica/tropical japonica) hybrids. China started the super hybrid rice project in 1996 to evolve elite high-yielding hybrids with improved plant type and higher heterosis by hybridizing indica and japonica sub-species. The main objective of the super hybrid rice project was to obtain yields of 12 t ha-1 in large scale and it has been achieved in 2004.

Recent advances in rice biotechnology could be of great use in achieving the objective of higher yield potential, as molecular dissection of rice genome is complete and information on molecular basis of heterosis and yield is getting richer day by day. The yield potential can be further enhanced by incorporating the genes for C4 photosynthesis from maize, favourable yield QTLs from wild rices and QTLs/genes for resistance to biotic stresses, nutrient use efficiency and grain quality from other donors employing the advanced biotechnology tools.

Conventional breeding for plant protection suffers from a series of limitations that include lack of resistant genotype (e.g. for sheath blight of rice caused by Rhizoctonia solani) and reproductive barriers between plant species preventing transfer of resistant genes. Plant species generally possesses its immune system, which signals a cellular response and leads to death of the attacking pathogen. Plant recognizes pathogen-encoded molecules through probable receptors encoded by disease resistance genes. A signal transduction study provides an excellent understanding of gene-for-gene resistance, which explains plant-pathogen co-evolution in a given environment. Developing varieties resistant to natural enemies (viruses, fungi, bacteria etc.) would provide a solution for sustainable agriculture. This approach is inexpensive, environment friendly and management would be easier than before.

Genomics-based strategies for gene discovery, coupled with validation of the transgenes by transgenesis have accelerated the identification of functional profile of candidate genes. The current knowledge allows us to understand the integration of genomics, physiological functioning, host-pathogen/pest interaction, genetics and plant breeding translating into system biology. Transgenesis has been successful to obtain transgenic rice conferring resistance to bacterial blight, partial resistance to sheath blight, blast and nematode. Much more work is needed to develop materials, which can be utilized in the farmers’ fields.

A marker-assisted breeding strategy was employed for enhancing the resistance of two  elite cultivars (IR 64 and Swarna) to bacterial blight by pyramiding two/three specific resistance genes (xa5, xa13, Xa21) through backcrossing. This supports the strategy of pyramiding appropriate resistance genes for developing durably-resistant varieties. 

The Asian rice gall midge, Orseolia oryzae Wood-Mason, and  African rice gall midge, O. oryzivora Harris and Gagne, (Diptera:Cecidomyiidae) are important pests of irrigated and shallow lowland ecosystems. Chemical/cultural control has not been highly efficient due to internal feeding habit of the pest. The main approach for its control has been the use of resistant varieties. Resistance is available plenty in the cultivated rice genome but only a few have been utilized in breeding programmes. Inheritance studies have led to the identification of nine gall midge resistance genes. Marker the assisted breeding has alleviated this situation, where a large number of segregating populations can be screened without resorting to exposure to the pest. Many DNA markers linked to the gall midge resistance genes have been identified and can be used in marker-assisted breeding for pyramiding non-allelic resistance genes. Rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola (Meloidogynidae:Nematoda), is one of the most potent parasites of the upland and direct-sown medium land ecosystems causing on an average 3 to 10% loss in yield. Marker-assisted breeding or  development of transgenic rice is the only alternative for developing resistant varieties. Two RAPD markers, OPO7825 and OPH8825, and a rice microsatellite marker, RM428320 were found to be linked to the root-knot  resistance gene.  Amplification of the markers in other root-knot nematode-resistant donors confirmed that these markers could be used in marker-assisted breeding programme for root-knot nematode resistance.

For blast resistance, there has been considerable advancement in gene deployment though control of the disease through major resistance genes has been only partially successful. Use of candidate genes involved in plant defense as a source of new markers for MAS has been advocated recently. Utility of this approach was tested using Vandana x Moroberekan population at several locations in Eastern Indian (Hazaribagh, Jharkhand; Almora, Uttarakhand and  Ambikapur, Chattisgarh) and IRRI, Philippines with the objective of accumulating quantitative resistance to blast.  Introgressed lines having 4-6 candidate genes (thaumatin, oxalate oxidase, oxalate oxidase like proteins, chitinase, HSP90) in the background of Vandana (recurrent parent) and showing resistance to blast across locations in Eastern India are now under yield testing.   Strategic research activities combining, breeding, MAS and transgenesis would be an ideal scenario to develop rice varieties with biotic stress tolerance and enhanced yield potential.

Adoption of modern and intensive agricultural practices by the farmers is inevitable in order to sustain the self sufficiency in rice produciton. However, along with the practice of intensive agriculture, there is a constant battle to overcome biotic constraints like insect pests, diseases, nematodes and weeds. More than 100 species of insects have been recorded as the pests of rice. Five of them viz. yellow stem borer (YSB), gall midge, brown plant hopper (BPH), white-backed plant hopper (WBPH) and leaf folder are of national importance and frequently responsible for significant yield losses across the diverse rice ecosystems. Among the diseases, blast, sheath blight, sheath rot, bacterial leaf blight (BLB) and rice tungro virus disease (RTD) are considered economically important. The important nematodes identified as constraints for rice production are root-knot, white tip, ufra, root and root lesion nematodes. Weeds also compete with rice plants for nutrients, moisture, sunlight and space, causing a substantial loss of grain yield. The weed problem is usually more serious in upland and direct-seeded rice.

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a system that, in the context of associated environment and population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at levels below those causing economically unacceptable damage or loss. Bio-intensive IPM differs from the conventional IPM in that the emphasis is on restructuringagricultural ecosystem to the disadvantage of pests and the advantage of their natural enemies. At the same time, it shares many of the components with conventional IPM such as monitoring, use of economic thresholds, judicious application of eco-friendly insecticides etc.

Pest monitoring is an integral part of bio-intensive pest management. Though light traps are in vogue for keeping watch on the build up of insect pest population in the field, development of valuable sex pheromone-based tools has proved useful for monitoring the YSB population.
Exploitation of host plant resistance for pest control is the main component of eco-friendly bio-intensive IPM. Resistant cultivars are the most durable, economical and practical means of tackling pest problems, being compatible with all the other components of IPM. In view of the changing and multiple pest complex scenarios, emphasis in future will be on the development of varieties with multiple resistance. The modern versatile biotechnological tools have enormous potential of overcoming the problems encountered in conventional breeding.

Manipulation of cultural practices offers good scope for indirect pest suppression, particularly in rainfed rice. Integrated nutrient management keeps the plants healthy, thereby enabling them to withstand and overcome pest attack. Nitrogen application in split doses and use of slow release formulations such as sulfur-coated urea and urea super granules help in lowering the pest incidence. Other cultural practices such as proper water management, leaving of alley ways and regular field sanitation also offer direct benefits to the farmer in pest suppression at no additional cost.

Biological control has tremendous scope, as the rich and diverse populations of natural enemies available in situ in rice fields can be exploited to check the multiplication of pests and consequently their adverse impact on grain yield. Inundative release of egg parasitoids, Trichogramma japonicum and T. chilonis, against stem borer and leaf folder in different ecosystems along with the other components of rice IPM has resulted in higher net returns. Rice diseases such as sheath blight can also be managed by bio-agents viz. Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride and Bacillus subtilis. In view of the potential hazards arising out of indiscriminate use of synthetic chemicals, non-traditional pesticides like neem and other plant products are likely to play a major role in rice IPM in future.

Efficient use of water and nutrients is extremely important for sustaining rice production in the context of declining per capita land and water availability, pollution and degradation problems, and increasing fertilizer costs.  Availability of freshwater for irrigation is shrinking due to decreasing resource and quality, and increasing competition from domestic and industrial sector. The water-saving irrigation techniques for rice production aim at reducing seepage and percolation losses. The optimum period of delaying irrigation was found to be 2 days after disappearance of standing water for locations having light-textuted soils, 3 days for locations having medium-textured soils and as high as 5 days for locations having silty-loam soils. Intermittent flooding saved 21-66% water as compared to continuous submergence treatment.  Saturated soil culture decreased water use by 5-50% but reduced rice yields by 0-12%. Construction of 120-cm wide raised beds separated by 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep furrows and near-continuous irrigation through the furrows keep the soil of raised beds saturated. Growing of rice on saturated raised beds saved 34% water but lost 16-34% yield compared to that under flooded field conditions. Alternate wetting and drying practice resulted in significant water saving but with rice yield losses of 0-70% compared with the continuous flooding treatment.

There is a trade-off between land productivity and water productivity. With the development of new varieties and improvement of agro-technical methods and practices, rice yields obtained under aerobic soil condition reach the level of production as under flood irrigation. Irrigation water input was 540-700 mm under aerobic condition as compared to 1250 mm under flooded soil condition. Water productivity under aerobic cultivation increased by 22.4-45.0% over that under flooded condition. High-yielding rice varieties have more than doubled the water productivity over the last decades.

 Recycling of drainage water is usually not considered in design manuals of most irrigation agencies and this practice in uncontrolled conditions may lead to draw-down of groundwater table and development of salinity problems. More attention must be paid to water quality issues, particularly the release of pollutants and salt concentration. Farmers depend on improved management of water at the system level as well as adequate irrigation and drainage facilities. In many large irrigation systems, few control structures at any level and structures and poor drainage networks contribute to the waste of water. Considering the growing water scarcity and pressure on the irrigated sub-sector within the water sector, there is no choice and farmers must be provided with both a conducive environment and a proper production tool, i.e. better performing irrigation services. This will require considerable investments in economic as well as human resources. Identifying the policies, management practices and technologies needed at farm, system and basin level will require a multi-disciplinary approach. Soil fertility has a marked effect on water use efficiency in rice. Results reveal that interaction between the water and nutrients strongly controls the crop productivity. The water use efficiency increases with  increase in N and P levels on acidic sandy-loam soils at Bhubaneswar. Use of poor quality ground water for irrigation causes development of soil salinity/sodicity in many arid and semi-arid areas. Balanced use of N, P, K and organic manures in such lands irrigated with high RSC (residual sodium carbonate) water ensure significant improvement in rice productivity. Gypsum application also helps in mitigating the deleterious effects of the water on plant growth and rice yield. Long-term fertility experiments on rice conducted in different agro-ecological regions have clearly established that (a) continuous use of N alone cannot be relied upon to produce sustained yields, (b) balanced optimum application of NPK is essential for sustainable high productivity, (c) in highly fertilized (NPK) system the deficiency of micro-nutrients and secondary nutrients will become a yield-limiting factor after a number of years and their application becomes necessary and (d) the integrated use of optimal dose of NPK and FYM gives sustainable yields and can correct some of the micronutrient and secondary nutrient deficiencies and soil acidity problems. Site specific nutrient management (SSNM) developed through the Irrigated Rice Research Consortium aims at feeding rice crop with nutrients as and when needed. The SSNM approach merits evaluation and use throughout irrigated and favourable rainfed lowland rice ecosystems. In hilly areas with high rainfall, efficient fertilizer application and water conservation methods are essential to minimize the losses through integrated watershed management. Likewise, appropriate fertilizer use strategies are required to suit the water submergence and flash flood situations prevalent in the coastal areas.

The natural as well as anthropogenic activities have serious effects on the greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) that include ever increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3). They have profound impact on global climatic changes and it has become an issue of great concern. The attendant global climatic change, resulting in increased ambient temperature and reduced monsoon, is likely to affect the already crippled agricultural scenario. Among the greenhouse gas emissions, CO2 is mostly originated from industrial activities, including burning of fossil fuels. However, like other GHGs, CO2 also has a significant impact on agricultural production and productivity. Similarly, the flooded rice paddies are considered as one of the most important sources of CH4 and N2O emission. Annual global estimate of CH4 emission from flooded rice paddies is in the range of ~20 7.08 Tg while the tentative global estimate of N2O emission is 2.3-3.7 Tg year-1. By 2020, the ambient CO2 concentration will reach 400 ppm. The average annual temperature is projected to have gone up by 0.90C in the midst of temperature increase scenario, with minimum and maximum increase likely to be 0.20C and 2.40C. There are indications that 80% or more of the increase in temperature is due to an increase of minimum temperature. This may have a significant effect on the area available for growing rice. By 2050, troposphere CO2 and O3 concentrations are predicted to increase by 50 and 20%, respectively. Both the gases have strong direct effects on photosynthesis and crop productivity. In addition, N2O and CH4 fluxes from the crops can add to global warming potential.

The major effect of elevated CO2 is on net photosynthesis by suppression of photorespiration. It could be expected that the optimum temperature for photosynthesis shifts upward as the concentration of CO2 increases. Conversely, very small interactive effect of temperature and CO2 on photosynthesis occurs at the canopy level. This is consistent with the temperature effects on responses of rice to elevated levels of CO2 in terms of biomass production under actual field conditions. The photosynthetic acclimation to elevated CO2 is not likely to occur for rice grown under field conditions within the CO2 range up to twice the current ambient level. Elevated CO2 can reduce plant’s tissue-N concentration, which will affect both growth and maintenance components of respiration.

Although rice cultivation optimally adds, albeit at a low key, to the warming potential that has assumed rapidly devastating dimension, the technologies have been developed to circumvent the situation. The most important fruit of intensive research in this area is the development of several practically-feasible mitigation options, which do not inconvenience the improved production technologies as well the rice yields. Among the different fertilizers, N-fertilizers have direct impact on N2O emission while their effect on CH4 emission is stimulatory, inhibitory or innocuous. Application of P-fertilizers like commonly used single super phosphate inhibits CH4 emission from flooded rice soils and this is attributed to the presence of SO4 in the P-fertilizer. Application of K-fertilizer significantly inhibits CH4 emission from flooded paddies by maintaining higher redox status in the soil. One of the most easily-adoptable options lies in the selection of high-yielding rice cultivars with low transport/emission potential of GHG. It is indeed fascinating to learn that rice varieties differ widely in their emission potential, though the extent is subject to soil type, cultivation and fertilizer management practices. There is an increasing and compelling need to develop, evaluate and popularize technologies with such exceptional potentials from the large available research database. A careful assessment and subsequent selection of suitable basket of packages for given ecological situations would render ample reductions in GHG emissions. In a larger perspective, these technology packages, if properly and widely adopted, would substantially limit overall GHG budgetary contributions at the national and global levels.

The stagnation in yields of existing high-yielding rice varieties calls for breaking the yield barrier for meeting food demand of ever increasing human population. In irrigated ecosystem, where differences between the potential yield and actual yield obtained by farmers are relatively small, an increase in the productivity through improvement of genetic yield potential appears more rewarding. Grain yield is a complex trait that depends on the intricate interactions of several interdependent physiological processes operating throughout the crop growth. A breakthrough in the yield potential can be achieved by increasing total biomass production, harvest index (HI) or both. Recent investigations on the quantitative trait loci (QTL) for these components clearly suggest the possibility of simultaneous improvement of both the traits. Increasing biomass production requires optimum leaf area index (LAI) coupled with appropriate canopy architecture for ensuring better light interception, longer leaf area duration, higher photosynthetic efficiency at both per unit leaf area and canopy levels, lower rates of respiration especially photorespiration, and ability of higher dry matter accumulation. Similarly, an improvement in HI can be achieved mainly by increasing the number of spikelets per unit land area (sink size) and percentage of fully-filled grains, for which higher photosynthetic rate during grain-filling period, larger storage of non-structural carbohydrates in culm and leaf sheath before heading and their efficient translocation to grains, ability of grains to accept carbohydrates (sink strength) and longer grain-filling duration are important. Appropriate strategies for improving these traits have been discussed. Major contribution to higher yield potential is expected from increased biomass production while HI needs to be at least maintained at the current levels or possibly increased slightly. Lack of quick and non-destructive methods for measurement of yield-related physiological traits has hindered the progress of their incorporation into new genotypes through conventional breeding. However, recent advancements in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to the identification of QTLs for most of these traits. This would greatly help in understanding physiological functions of the genes associated with specific traits and facilitate their subsequent improvement through marker-assisted breeding, gene pyramiding and transgenic approaches. Some progress in this direction has been made in recent years and continuing research efforts are likely to pay high dividends in future.

The continuing increase in population pressure in the country demands substantial enhancement in the production of food, feed, fodder, fibre and fuel over the next few decades for not only maintaining the self sufficiency but also meeting the export requirements. One of the approaches for achieving this goal is increasing the agricultural productivity per unit time and area by raising two or more crops in a year through multiple, relay or inter cropping both in irrigated and rainfed ecosystems by utilizing the available resources more efficiently. Rice-based cropping systems provide livelihood to more than 50 million households and are being practised under three major ecosystems i.e. rainfed uplands (16%), irrigated medium lands (45%) and rainfed lowlands (39%). With the introduction of high-yielding photo and thermo-insensitive rice varieties of relatively shorter duration, there have been remarkable changes in the cropping system concept. Many promising rice-based cropping systems suited to different soil and climatic conditions have been identified in terms of agronomic productivity, physiological output and economic benefit.

There is a strong need for monitoring the entire rice-based production system in terms of crop varieties, nutrient dynamics, water table, quality of irrigation water, and insect pest, disease and weed problems to evolve appropriate site-specific management practices. Economic feasibility is another important criterion for acceptance of a cropping system by the farming community. Therefore, the economic feasibility needs to be assessed while developing a particular cropping system. The large-scale adoption of an improved cropping system depends mostly on the socio-economic factors such as availability of labour, credit facilities, cost of inputs and processing, marketability and price of produce, risks involved and social acceptability.

Out of the nine major cropping systems in vogue in India, rice-based cropping systems account for the largest area of 27.91 million hectares (m ha). Further, among the 15 different rice-based cropping systems, rice-wheat system ranks first with 9.84 m ha, followed by rice-rice with 5.89 m ha and rice-fallow with 4.4 m ha. In these systems, rice being the first crop, the duration of rice variety influences the success of the subsequent crops(s). In rainfed regions, the amount of residual soil moisture after the harvest of rice determines the type of crops to be taken in sequence. Similarly, in irrigated lands, number of crops in the cropping sequence depends upon the duration of preceding rice corp. In rainfed uplands, varietal compatibility in mixed/intercropping system between rice and non-rice crops, also determines the degree of success of the cropping system.

For the sustainability of a cropping/farming system, the future rice improvement prgramme needs to emphasis on the development of location-specific, multiple cropping-friendly rice varieties to improve the overall productivity as well as generating more employment for the rural poor to improve their livelihood.

Farming systems represent the integration of farm enterprises such as cropping systems, horticulture, animal husbandry, fishery, agro-forestry and apiary for optimal utilization of farm resources. The primary goals of rice-based integrated farming systems are i)maximization  of yields of all the component enterprises to provide higher and stable income, ii) rejuvenation/amelioration of systems productivity and achieving agro-ecological equilibrium, iii) control of the build-up of insect pests, diseases and weeds population through natural cropping system management and keeping them at low intensities and iv) reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and other harmful agro-chemicals to provide contamination-free healthy produce and safe environment to the society.

On-station studie, involving enterprises such as crop, fishery, poultry, duckery, apiary and mushroom production have revealed that there is a chain of interaction among these enterprises. The by-product of one enterprise may be effectively utilized for the other enterprise, thus ensuring higher resource-use efficiency. The by-product of dairy farms is a major raw-material for bio-gas plants. Digested slurry of bio-gas plant is a major input for increasing plankton population, the natural food for fish, besides supplying valuable manure to raise the productivity of field crops and enriching soil nutrients. The by-product of field crops like paddy straw forms a major raw-materials for mushroom cultivation. The straw after mushroom production is utilized as cattle feed and  for compost preparation. Even apiary plays a key role in crop pollination, apart from giving a product like honey to farmers.

Among the various farming system options in rice ecologies, rice-fish farming has a great potential, particularly in the eastern India, in view of the resources, food habits and other socio-economic conditions. Rice-fish culture systems can be mixed or concurrent, sequential or rotational. Rice-fish technological options are available for all wetland rice ecologies. Rice-fish/prawn seed farming  is suitable in irrigated and shallow lowlands, with the productivity potential of 100-300 kg fish (carp, magur) fingerlings in addition to 4-12 t ha-1 of rice (two crops). Rice-growout fish culture, including ornamental fish, is feasible in irrigated, rainfed lowland and waterlogged areas, with a productivity of 200-1000 kg fish and 3-13 t (three crops) rice ha-1 yr-1 Rice-fish diversified farming system with the integration of  compatible components like improved varieties of  rice, fish, prawn, pulses, oilseed and horticultural crops, Azolla,  agroforestry, mushroom , poultry, duckery, goatery, floriculture and apiculture can increase the farm productivity by about fifteen folds and net income by about twenty times, besides 200% increase in farm employment over the traditional rice farming in rainfed medium-deep lowlands. In dee-pwater areas, multi-tier rice-fish-prawn-horticultural crops-agro-forestry based farming system can produce about 8 t rice (two crops), 1000 kg fish and prawn, 2-28 t vegetables and 8.5-52 t tuber crops ha-1 yr-1. In coastal areas, rice-fish sequential/rotational farming has the potential of yielding 3-6 t of rice and 800-1250 kg of fish and prawn. Rice-fish farming in high altitude areas of North Eastern Region can produce about 200 kg of fish ha-1 in addition to rice. Rice-fish farming system has many other advantages like cost-effective resource use, reduction of investment risks due to farm diversification, bio-control of rice pests (including weeds) and enrichment of soil nutrient status leading to 5-15% higher rice yield.
The other alternate farming systems like rice-duck and rice-livestock can also increase the productivity and income in rice ecologies. The integrated rice-based farming system models  involving rice and other crops, fish, poultry, livestock, mushroom and agro-forestry developed for small and marginal farmers of different  zones in the country have the potential of higher farm income (Rs. 29400-156000 ha-1 yr-1) and employment. Research and development of suitable rice-based farming systems in all the potential agro-ecological regions of the country are needed for improving livelihood of farming communities, especially the small and marginal farmers.

India has the largest area under rice cultivation and is the 2nd largest producer of rice. There is a need for mechanization to minimize the use of manpower and make rice cultivation more profitable. All the energy sources like human, animal, mechanical and electrical are used in Indian agriculture. The human energy use in rice production has decreased from 889 man-hr ha-1 in 1971-72 to 783 man-hr ha-1 in 1996-97. The use of animal power also decreased from 92% in 1960-61 to 45% in 1980-81 and 19% in 1999-2000. On the other hand, the share of mechanical and electrical power increased from 8% in 1960-61 to 81% in 1999-2000.

Tractor-operated cultivators are most commonly used for primary and secondary tillage operations. The cultivators with pulverizing roller attachment reduce time needed for dry seed-bed preparation and result in a saving of up to 25% fuel. Tractor-drawn disc harrows are popular for dry secondary tillage operation. For preparation of wetlands, bullock-drawn puddlers, power tiller rotavator, tractor drawn paddy disk harrow, cage wheel with cultivator and rotavator are used. Tractor-drawn rotavators are very efficient for dry as well as wet tillage. Mechanically-metered seed drills and seed-cum-fertilizer drills operated by human, animal, power tiller and tractor are available to suit specific requirements. Manually-operated 2-row or 4-row rice transplanters and 8-row self propelled transplanters are also available. Their use reduces drudgery and cost of transplanting and enhances the capacity and income of the farmer as well as farm workers. The use of 8-row self propelled transplanter gives an output of 1.0 ha day-1 and increases yield by 15-20%. For weeding in line-sown or transplanted rice, manually-operated long handled rake weeder, Japanese paddy weeder and Cono star weeder are being used. There is need of power weeders, which are in the process of development. Farmers are using hand compression sprayers, knapsack sprayers and power sprayers for application of pesticides.

Self propelled-vertical conveyor reapers having field capacity of 0.16 ha h-1 are now becoming popular. Pedal operated threshers, electric motor or oil engine-operated threshers, power tiller and tractor-operated axial flow threshers are also becoming popular among the rice farmers and currently about 5 million threshers are being used in the country. Self propelled combined harvesters, both wheel and track type, and tractor-operated combines of 50-90 hp engine are available for both harvesting and threshing in the field itself. Improved paddy cleaners developed in the country include CIAE pedal-cum-power operated cleaner, TNAU power paddy winnower and CRRI power paddy winnower-cum-grader.

For safe storage and milling, paddy has to be dried up to 12% and 14% moisture level, respectively. Open sun drying is a common traditional method of drying food grains. However, this system suffers from quality consideration, though it enjoys the cost advantage. Recognizing the need for better drying facilities for both freshly harvested and parboiled paddy, farm level mechanical dryers have been developed in the country such as CRRI community grain dryer and variable capacity batch dryer, TNAU tray dryer and GB Pant continuous grain dryer.

Paddy/rice is stored in different types of storage structures to provide protection against weather, moisture, insects, micro-organisms, rats, birds and any type of infestation and contamination. Paddy grains are stored at three different levels such as producer’s level (rural storage), trader’s level and urban organizational storage. Farmers store 60-70% of the rice produced in the country in traditional structures like gunny bag, straw bin, bamboo bin and mud structure which are not scientific and allow maximum losses. The rest 30-40 % is stored by organized sectors like private and government agencies using godowns, cover and plinth (CAP) storage and silos. Improved bins (moisture and rodent proof) have been designed and developed by different research organizations such as; CRRI RCC ring bin, IARI Pusa bin, Hapur metal bin CIAE coaltar drum bin, PKV bin, etc. for scientific storage of food grains.

The CFTRI, Mysore has developed the improved method of parboiling that includes soaking of paddy at 700C for 3.5 h followed by steaming at 4 kg cm-2 for 10-15 minutes and sun/mechanical drying. The CRRI has developed a mini modern parboiling unit that employs CFTRI hot soaking method of parboiling with slight modification to make it workable under rural situation. Rice milling is the oldest and the largest agro-processing industry of the country. The recovery of whole grains in a traditional rice mill using steel hullers for dehusking is around 52-54%. Against it, the recovery per cent of whole grains in modern rice mills using rubber roll shellers is around 62-64% for raw and 66-68% for parboiled rice. Modernization of the rice milling industry in the country was taken up in 1970. Due to sustained efforts made by the Government, the number of modern/modernized rice mills has gone up from practically ‘nil’ in 1970 to nearly 35088 in 2002.

With increase in the income of people and development of food-processing industries, current focus of rice research in major rice-producing countries is on promoting quality rices and value-added products. About 95% of rice is consumed unprocessed i.e. simply as cooked whole grain, while the remaining 5% is used to make processed foods and industrial products, including bakery products and alcoholic beverages. The notion and definition of quality rices depend on the consumer preferences and the intended end use. Therefore, the major challenge before rice scientists is to translate the consumer preferences for quality into measurable physico-chemical parameters. The desirable features of good quality rice normally include acceptable grain shape (medium/long slender), translucency, no chalkiness and cracks on the endosperm, high head rice recovery (HRR) and excellent cooking properties. The grain quality comprises marketing, cooking and nutritional qualities. The marketing quality depends on appearance, which includes grain length and breadth, HRR, chalkiness, colour and surface smoothness. The cooking qualitydepends largely on amylose content and is determined by alkali value, water uptake, volume expansion ratio (VER), kernel length after cooking (KLAC), elongation ratio and apparent amylose content (AC).

Normally, long/medium slender grains with good cooking quality are considered as quality rices. We propose a common definition for quality speciality rices as those rices that are higher in value due to some unique quality for which they are sought and, hence, command higher price in the market compared to the commonly-eaten rices. Such rices which include aromatic rices, slender grain rices, medicinal and nutrient-rich rices, organically-cultivated rices, pigmented rices, glutinous rices, wine rices and those suitable for making value-added products need to be identified and promoted to enhance the income from rice cultivation. In recent years, some useful chemicals have been extracted from rice bran such as g-oryzanols, tocopheros and tocotrienols,  which confer several health benefits to rice consumers like reduction in blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels, anti-tumor and anti-cancer activity, and protection against cardio-vascular diseases. Rice bran oil is the only oil that contains g-oryzanol among the popular cooking oils and needs to be promoted. It is high time that a national programme is initiated to collect, characterize and promote quality/speciality rice germplasm, lest we should lose sight of these valuable materials in our quest for high-yielding varieties.

The eastern India occupies more than 75% of the total rainfed rice area in the country. The utilization of irrigation potential is the highest in West Bengal (77.4%) and the lowest in Assam (4.2%). Average cropping intensity in this region is 145.6%, with the highest intensity of 278% in Nadia district of West Bengal and the lowest intensity of 100.7% in Dumka district of Jharkhand. Cropping intensity among the 172 districts covering different States of the eastern region is less than 150% in 100 districts, between 150 and 200% in 67 districts and more than 200% in only 5 districts of West Bengal. The annual productivity gain for rice in eastern India during 1970-71 to 2003-04 has been 36 kg ha-1, as against the national average of 44 kg ha-1. The annual productivity gain for rice during the last 35 years in Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Assam, Bihar and Jharkhand is only 15-26 kg ha-1. The lower productivity gains in this region are mainly due to the concentration of rainfed areas under rice cultivation, which constrains the adoption of improved technologies. Besides, the lack of dependable market support makes the farming and associated technology used in the production process uneconomical.
In the present economic scenario, the economy may grow at a higher rate of more than 8-9% at the national level and more than 6-7% even in the eastern India. Although it is widely recognized that the key to India’s sustained food security lies in the eastern region, our understanding of the production constraints which tend to reduce yield and factor productivity in rice farming and strategies to remove them are still inadequate, despite several studies having been made in the past to examine the constraints at farm level and many programmes like ‘Special Research to Development Programme’ by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1987 and ‘Special Rice Production Programme’ and ‘Front Line Demonstration’ by the Ministry of Agriculture since 1990 having been implemented. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines has made significant efforts in collaboration with the ICAR and state agriculture universities (SAUs) in the eastern India through a consortium for improvement of rained lowland and upland rice. However, the impact of these efforts at farmers’ level is marginal. In this context, an analysis is made to consolidate the production constraints of rice and broadly group them under (i) bio-physical, (ii) socio-economic, (iii) technological and (iv) institutional categories to facilitate the scientists of appropriate disciplines in making efforts for higher production growth.

The frequent occurrence of drought, flood and submergence; low levels of input use both in irrigated and rainfed situations; poor maintenance of irrigated commands which constrains the use of fertilizers, inadequate and imbalanced use of fertilizers;  sizeable area attached with acidic soil and poor water holding capacity; use of poor quality seeds with low rates of seed replacement; poverty that  hinders the use of expensive yield-raising technologies; lack of credit and market support; poor and uncertain impact of fertilizer use in rainfed situation; and poor credit-market-technology linkage are the main causes of low rice yields. Besides, lack of flexibility in making production management in rice, poor knowledge on type of fertilizer application particularly in varied rainfed situations, delay in sowing/transplanting, continuous practice of rice-rice cropping system in irrigated commands, lack of suitable rice varieties for different rainfed environments, inadequate credit facilities and poor research-extension linkage are the causes of low rice yields in the eastern India. Agricultural research and development should be formulated in such a way that the constraints can be converted to opportunities for not only increasing rice production but also providing food security to poor farming communities of this region.

India is a signatory of the trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPs) in the Uruguay Round Agreement of 1995 and, thus, it is mandatory for the country to amend and implement the laws in order to make them TRIPs-compliant. The government has initiated action to bring in the requisite changes. In the past few years, India has enacted fully TRIPs-compliant Trademarks Act, Copyright Act, Designs Registration Act, Geographical Indications Act and Protection of Layouts for Integrated Circuits Act. In addition, the Plant Varieties Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 and the Bio-diversity Act 2002 are in place and being implemented. The Departments of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) and Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) are concerned with legislations relating to Patents, Trade Marks, Designs and Geographical Indications.  These are administered through the Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks (CGPDTM), subordinate office, with headquarters at Mumbai as under:

a)  The Patents Act 1970 (amended in 1999, 2002 and 2005) through the Patent Offices at Kolkata (HQ), Mumbai, Chennai and Delhi.
b)  The Designs Act 2000 through the Patent Offices at Kolkata (HQ), Mumbai, Chennai and Delhi.
c)  The Trade Marks Act 1999 through the Trade Marks Registry at Mumbai (HQ), Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Ahmedabad.
d)  The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act 1999 through the Geographical Indications Registry at Chennai.

The necessary safeguards have been built into the IP laws, particularly in the Patents law, for protection of public interest, including public health. Along with the legislation, rules have also been amended to install a user-friendly system for processing IP applications. All the rules and forms are available on the website http://www.ipindia.nic.in. Copyright is protected through Copyright Act 1957, as amended in 1999, which is administered by the Department of Higher Education. Layout of transistors and other circuitry elements is protected through the Semi-conductor Integrated Circuits Layout-Design Act 2000, which is administered by the Department of Information Technolo2gy. New varieties of plants are protected through the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001, which is administered by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. Civil and criminal provisions exist in the various laws for dealing with counterfeiting and piracy. The Department of IPP has set up an Inter-ministerial Committee to coordinate the IP enforcement issues.
With regards to IPRs relating to agriculture, the Government of India enacted laws for the protection of plant varieties and also geographical indications. It has also enacted a law for the protection of bio-diversity. The Plant Variety Protection and Farmers’ Rights Act 2001 and PVP & FR Rules 2003 have the provision of Breeders’ Rights, Farmers’ Rights, Researchers’ Rights and Communities’ Rights.

There has been a provision of Compulsory Licensing, if seeds of protected variety are not available in adequate quantity or at a reasonable price, and the Authority may grant license to a third party to undertake the production, distribution and sale of seed. Requirements for registration necessitate that the variety has to be Novel, Distinct, Uniform and Stable so as to qualify for registration and this needs to be tested by the Authority. The PPV&FRA authority has laid out the procedure for registration of different types of plant varieties for 12 identified crops and already started receiving applications for the registration of new, extant and farmer’s varieties for 8 notified crops. As on October 19, 2007, total 41 applications on rice have been received, of which 17 are for new varieties, 22 for extant varieties and 2 for farmer’s varieties.

In response to the Convention of Biological Diversity, the Biological Diversity Act 2002 has been passed, rules framed and notified in April, 2004. The Act has defined Biological Diversity, Biological Resources, Bio-survey and Commercial Institution. Under this act, National Biological Authority (NBA) has been set up to oversee and supervise implementation of the provisions of the Act at the apex level in the country. The State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) are being set up at the state level and Bio-diversity Management Committees (BMCs) are supposed to operate at the local level. The main objective of the Act is to preserve, regulate and manage biological resources for sustainable use through the NBA. Under this act, the access to germplasm for non-Indians or non-resident Indians necessarily has to be with prior approval of the NBA. This access is facilitated through a structured application and payment of Rs.10000 as fee. Access by parties belonging to Indian citizens or a body corporate/association/organization registered in India for the purpose of commercial utilization has to be with prior intimation to the SBB. Whereas, for the local people and communities inhabiting an area, including traditional medicine practitioners, the access is free. Access will be provided solely for the purpose of utilization and conservation for (i) research, (ii) breeding and (iii) training for food and agriculture provided that such purpose does not include chemical, pharmaceutical and other non-food/feed industrial uses. Access to PGRs under development, including material being developed by farmers shall be at the discretion of the developer.

Recipients shall not claim any intellectual property or other rights that limit the facilitated access to the PGR, or their genetic part or a component. All the available passport data and, subject to applicable law, any other associated non-confidential information shall be made available. Access to PGRs protected by intellectual property and other property rights shall be consistent with the relevant international agreements and national laws. Contracting Parties (CPs) agree that access to PGRs found in in-situ condition will be provided according to national legislation. IPRs, whether obtained in or outside India for inventions based on research or biological resources obtained from India, are subject to prior approval of the NBA. For patents, permission may be obtained after acceptance but before grant of permission the NBA may impose benefit sharing fee or royalty or both. The approval shall be in the form of an agreement defining terms and conditions of use of the biological material.
Assurance of protection of IPRs has added a new dimension to the multilateral trading arrangement currently being implemented by the WTO. It has wide ranging implications for various sectors of national economies. However, it is of particular significance to agriculture sector. It envisages effective arrangements for the protection of IPRs relating to agricultural sector. Arrangements for such protection in developing countries have been given a special thrust to make them adequate. It has, thus, given a boost to the national agricultural research systems (NARS). Countries with good infrastructure for research stand to gain. Developments of other international forums viz. FAO, CBD and WIPO will ensure protection of IPRs indigenous to developing countries, in addition to ensuring food security and sustainability of natural resources. Benefits from the IPRs in developing countries will vary from country to country. India having a large research system for agriculture and a vibrant seed industry stands to gain from the new international developments relating to IPRs.